第一部分 國際私法中弱者利益保護論題的背景
首先,任何一部法律都是時代的產(chǎn)物,任何一種原則或者規(guī)則的誕生都離不開時代的本身。隨著全球政治的多元化和各國經(jīng)濟的互補性日益增強,特別是目前“一帶一路”戰(zhàn)略的鋪開使得我國與其他國家的交往更加密切。目前,互聯(lián)網(wǎng)的發(fā)展已經(jīng)從電子信息時代進入微時代,便利的交流方式使得跨國貿(mào)易及人口流動愈加頻繁、涉外民商事交往活動之規(guī)模日益擴大,致使各種涉外糾紛發(fā)生的頻率和數(shù)量都逐步增長。當前的研究應(yīng)當不止立足于對涉外糾紛的解決,也應(yīng)當致力于規(guī)避與解決法律沖突,因此應(yīng)當更加深入而廣泛地了解其他國家的法律,以達到和諧的國際社會狀態(tài)。第二,20世紀30年代,美國興起沖突法革命,要求實質(zhì)正義代替形式正義。20世紀末,社會本位成為許多國家沖突立法的主導(dǎo)思想和主要原則。社會本位的法律觀追求國內(nèi)乃至國際社會公共和整體利益最大化,注重社會整體均衡發(fā)展,保障社會整體效率提升,以社會為基本出發(fā)點構(gòu)建法律制度和法律規(guī)則,要求一國的私法遵循國際社會公認的準則,為整個人類的可持續(xù)發(fā)展建立良好的法律秩序。在這樣的法律觀下,對弱者利益的保護對于國際私法來說始終是十分重要的命題。第三,2011年我國《民事法律關(guān)系法律適用法》頒布,而2016年開始我國進行編纂民法典工程。在民法典的編纂中,如何定位與進一步修改法律適用法也將是一個重要的議題。而在之后的修改之中,應(yīng)繼續(xù)考慮如何進一步更好地保護弱者的權(quán)利并同時達到法律所要求的真正平等,以更好地實現(xiàn)社會利益和個人利益的協(xié)調(diào),最終實現(xiàn)社會的和諧。
第二部分國際私法弱者權(quán)益保護之文獻檢索指南概述
一、關(guān)鍵詞
國際私法(private International Law)
人權(quán)(human rights)
實質(zhì)公平(substantial justice)
弱者(the weak)
弱者利益保護(the protection of the weak; the protection of the
disadvantages)
法律適用法(applicable law)
沖突法(conflict law)
二、5W分析法
(1)Who(國際私法弱者利益保護所涉及的對象)
立法者(legislator),法官(judge),學(xué)者(scholar),涉外民事案件當事人(parties of foreign-related civil law)
(2)what(國際私法弱者利益保護內(nèi)容)
最密切聯(lián)系原則(The most significant relationship principle),有利于原則(The principle favorable to one party),反致(renvoi),保留(reserve),連結(jié)點(connecting points)
(3)where(弱者利益保護的范圍)
法院(court),立法機關(guān)(the legislature)
(4)when(對弱者利益進行保護的時間)
立法(legislation)、審判(trial)
(5)why(國際私法中對弱者利益保護的原因)
人權(quán)保護(protection of human right),實質(zhì)公平(substantive justice),社會整體利益最大化(Maximize the overall interests of society),社會本位的法律觀(legal view of social-oriented)
三、檢索詞語
1、中文檢索詞語
弱者、有利于原則、強制性沖突規(guī)范、法律適用
2、英文檢索詞語
The interests of the Weak, Protection, Public Policy, Substantive Justice, Applicable law
四、閱讀對象
目前,國際公約和大多數(shù)國家的實體法都傾向于保護弱者的利益。有些從原則和制度的制定方面入手,有些從沖突規(guī)范上對弱者權(quán)益給予特殊規(guī)定以體現(xiàn)對弱者利益的保護。當前來看,各國對弱者利益的保護主要體現(xiàn)在涉外婚姻家庭領(lǐng)域、涉外合同領(lǐng)域和涉外侵權(quán)領(lǐng)域。2011年我國《涉外民事關(guān)系法律適用法》正式實施,這是我國加強對弱者權(quán)益保護的重要體現(xiàn)。但我們通過對此也可以發(fā)現(xiàn),相較于域外國際私法立法,我國無論在立法還是在司法裁判中對于弱者利益的保護都還相當欠缺。本文希望通過對國內(nèi)外文獻的檢索和梳理,為之后從事國際私法弱者利益研究的人員所用。故從廣泛意義上來說,所有與本文論點相關(guān)的人員都是本文的閱讀對象,其中主要包括:立法者、法官、國際私法學(xué)者、涉外民事案件的當事人、律師。
第三部分、中國法律資源
一、一次資源
1、法律
【檢索路徑】北大法寶--中央法規(guī)司法解釋--法律適用
【檢索結(jié)果】
●《中華人民共和國涉外民事關(guān)系法律適用法》第3章,第25~第30條;第6章第42條、第45條。(北大法寶,【法寶引證碼】CLI.1.139684)
第25條 父母子女人身、財產(chǎn)關(guān)系,適用共同經(jīng)常居所地法律;沒有共同經(jīng)常居所地的,適用一方當事人經(jīng)常居所地法律或者國籍國法律中有利于保護弱者權(quán)益的法律。
第29條 扶養(yǎng),適用一方當事人經(jīng)常居所地法律、國籍國法律或者主要財產(chǎn)所在地法律中有利于保護被扶養(yǎng)人權(quán)益的法律。
第30條 監(jiān)護,適用一方當事人經(jīng)常居所地法律或者國籍國法律中有利于保護被監(jiān)護人權(quán)益的法律。
第42條 消費者合同,適用消費者經(jīng)常居所地法律;消費者選擇適用商品、服務(wù)提供地法律或者經(jīng)營者在消費者經(jīng)常居所地沒有從事相關(guān)經(jīng)營活動的,適用商品、服務(wù)提供地法律。
第45條 產(chǎn)品責任,適用被侵權(quán)人經(jīng)常居所地法律;被侵權(quán)人選擇適用侵權(quán)人主營業(yè)地法律、損害發(fā)生地法律的,或者侵權(quán)人在被侵權(quán)人經(jīng)常居所地沒有從事相關(guān)經(jīng)營活動的,適用侵權(quán)人主營業(yè)地法律或者損害發(fā)生地法律。
2、司法解釋
●《最高人民法院關(guān)于適用<中華人民共和國涉外民事關(guān)系法律適用法>若干問題的解釋(一)》第10條(北大法寶,【法寶引證碼】 CLI.3.192329)
第10條 有下列情形之一,涉及中華人民共和國社會公共利益、當事人不能通過約定排除適用、無需通過沖突規(guī)范指引而直接適用于涉外民事關(guān)系的法律、行政法規(guī)的規(guī)定,人民法院應(yīng)當認定為涉外民事關(guān)系法律適用法第四條規(guī)定的強制性規(guī)定:
(一)涉及勞動者權(quán)益保護的;
(二)涉及食品或公共衛(wèi)生安全的;
(三)涉及環(huán)境安全的;
(四)涉及外匯管制等金融安全的;
(五)涉及反壟斷、反傾銷的;
(六)應(yīng)當認定為強制性規(guī)定的其他情形。
3、案例
【檢索路徑】北大法寶--司法案例--法律適用、弱者、權(quán)益保護
【檢索結(jié)果】共14篇,法寶推薦5篇,普通案例9篇。
●《李敏等訴區(qū)兆深撫養(yǎng)費案》,廣東省中山市中級人民法院判決書【(2011)中中法民一終字第776號】
(1)裁判要點
二審的焦點之一在于一審法院適用《中華人民共和國婚姻法》的決定是否正確。中山市中級人民法院經(jīng)審理認為:因李敏、李誠系香港居民,本案為涉港撫養(yǎng)費糾紛。《中華人民共和國涉外民事關(guān)系法律適用法》第二十九條規(guī)定:“扶養(yǎng),適用一方當事人經(jīng)常居所地法律、國籍國法律或者主要財產(chǎn)所在地法律中有利于保護被扶養(yǎng)人權(quán)益的法律。”香港特別行政區(qū)《未成年人監(jiān)護條例》規(guī)定:“該未成年人的父親或向該申請人支付一筆款項的命令;該筆款項(不論是整筆或分期支付)乃用以應(yīng)付該未成年人的當前及非經(jīng)常需要,或用以應(yīng)付此命令發(fā)出前因贍養(yǎng)該未成年人而合理招致的債務(wù)或支出,或用以應(yīng)付上述兩者,款額為法院于顧及該名父親或母親的經(jīng)濟狀況后認為合理者。”《中華人民共和國婚姻法》第二十一條第二款規(guī)定:“父母不履行撫養(yǎng)義務(wù)時,未成年的或不能獨立生活的子女,有要求父母付給撫養(yǎng)費的權(quán)利。”最高人民法院《關(guān)于人民法院審理離婚案件處理子女撫養(yǎng)問題的若干具體意見》第7條規(guī)定:“子女撫養(yǎng)費的數(shù)額,可根據(jù)子女的實際需要、父母雙方的負擔能力和當?shù)氐膶嶋H生活水平確定。”由于香港與內(nèi)地法律關(guān)于被撫養(yǎng)人撫養(yǎng)費的規(guī)定基本一致,故原審適用內(nèi)地法律并無不當。
(2)案例討論
本案中法院在適用法的確定上經(jīng)過了內(nèi)地與香港法律對比這一步驟,以便挑選出最有利于當事人的法律。雖然在本案中,內(nèi)地與香港法律對于被扶養(yǎng)人的規(guī)定類似所以法院最后使用了《中華人民共和國婚姻法》,但在司法裁判過程中體現(xiàn)出了對弱者利益的保護。
●申請人胡某某與被申請人余某某申請撤銷監(jiān)護人資格案,上海市閔行區(qū)人民法院【(2015)閔民一(民)特字第39號】
(1)裁判要點
法院認為,因申請人胡某某系加拿大國籍,本案為涉外監(jiān)護糾紛。《中華人民共和國涉外民事關(guān)系法律適用法》第三十條規(guī)定:“監(jiān)護,適用一方當事人經(jīng)常居所地法律或者國籍國法律中有利于保護被監(jiān)護人權(quán)益的法律。”本案中,被監(jiān)護人鄭甲自出生起,便隨父母及外祖父母共同在上海生活,父母去世后,一直由外祖父母實際承擔其日常的生活和學(xué)習(xí)。從有利于鄭甲的身心健康及成長角度看,適用我國法律更有利于保護鄭甲的權(quán)益。
根據(jù)《中華人民共和國民法通則》規(guī)定,未成年人的父母是未成年人的監(jiān)護人。未成年人的父母已經(jīng)死亡或者沒有監(jiān)護能力的,由下列人員中有監(jiān)護能力的人擔任監(jiān)護人:(一)祖父母、外祖父母;(二)兄、姐;(三)關(guān)系密切的其他親屬、朋友愿意擔任監(jiān)護責任,經(jīng)未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會同意的。對擔任監(jiān)護人有爭議的,由未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會在近親屬中指定。對指定不服提起訴訟的,由人民法院裁決。監(jiān)護人應(yīng)當履行監(jiān)護職責,監(jiān)護人不履行監(jiān)護職責或者侵害被監(jiān)護人的合法權(quán)益的,應(yīng)當承擔責任。人民法院可以根據(jù)有關(guān)人員或者有關(guān)單位的申請,撤銷監(jiān)護人的資格。本案中,被申請人余某某作為鄭甲的外祖母,在鄭甲的父母已經(jīng)死亡的情形下,是法律規(guī)定的鄭甲的首選監(jiān)護人之一。現(xiàn)余某某有監(jiān)護能力且愿意承擔監(jiān)護職責,又經(jīng)上海市靜安區(qū)江寧路街道新安居民委員會指定,其依法擔任鄭甲的監(jiān)護人。依照法律規(guī)定,申請人也可以擔任鄭甲的監(jiān)護人,但雙方經(jīng)過協(xié)商,達成了由余某某擔任鄭甲的監(jiān)護人的協(xié)議,該協(xié)議系雙方真實意思表示,不違反法律規(guī)定,合法有效,具有法律約束力。現(xiàn)申請人申請撤銷余某某的監(jiān)護人資格,但未能充分舉證證明余某某擔任監(jiān)護人后有不履行監(jiān)護職責或者侵害被監(jiān)護人合法權(quán)益的行為,故對于申請人的申請,本院難以支持。至于申請人提及的鄭甲的國籍問題,因與本案無涉,本院不作評價。對于申請人要求探望鄭甲的訴求,被申請人應(yīng)當提供相應(yīng)的便利,被申請人拒不配合的,申請人可以通過合法途徑解決。
(2)案例討論
在本案法律適用的問題上,裁判法院直接在裁判書中引用了弱者利益保護原則,在本案中鄭甲作為未成年人處于弱勢地位,出于對鄭甲利益保護最大化的考慮,法院選擇了內(nèi)地法律進行判決。
二、二次資源
1、圖書
【檢索路徑】浙江大學(xué)圖書館書目檢索--國際私法、弱者、法律適用、權(quán)益保護
【檢索結(jié)果】共48本,經(jīng)選擇
●屈廣清等。 國際私法之弱者保護[M].北京:商務(wù)印書館,2011.
屈廣清教授發(fā)表過多篇有關(guān)弱者利益保護的期刊文獻,而他編著的本書是國內(nèi)對弱者利益保護介紹最為詳細的書本之一。在本書中,屈廣清教授從國際私法保護弱者的意義,國際私法語境下的弱者,保護弱者之原則與制度、方法,中國國際私法保護弱者之立法這幾方面對這一原則從國內(nèi)外多方面做出了詳盡的介紹,是對該原則進行研究的必讀基礎(chǔ)。
●萬鄂湘。中華人民共和國涉外民事關(guān)系法律適用法條文理解與適用[M].北京:中國法制出版社,2011.
●曲波。國際私法本體下弱者利益的保護問題[M].北京:法律出版社,2009.
《國際私法本體下弱者利益的保護問題》一書主要從國際私法的本體入手,具體采用歷史分析方法、語義分析方法、比較分析方法及價值分析方法,對國際私法中的弱者進行闡釋,論證國際私法保護弱者利益的正當性,分析國際私法保護弱者利益的現(xiàn)狀,探討如何用國際私法的特有方法和特有制度來更好地對弱者利益進行保護,并進而設(shè)計我國未來國際私法立法保護弱者利益方面的條款。
2、碩博士學(xué)位論文
【檢索路徑】中國知網(wǎng)--國際私法、弱者、法律適用、利益保護
【檢索結(jié)果】共252篇,經(jīng)選擇
●梅傲。 國際私法人本論[D].西南政法大學(xué),2014.
●李鳳琴。 國際合同法律適用發(fā)展趨勢研究[D].華東政法大學(xué),2011.
●曲波。 弱者利益的國際私法保護[D].大連海事大學(xué),2007.
曲波的博士論文是其著作《國際私法本體下弱者利益的保護問題》的基礎(chǔ),其中他對弱者利益保護中對于人權(quán)的追求作出了判斷。他在文章中認為,人權(quán)的觀念已對各個法律部門產(chǎn)生了深刻的影響。不同的法律部門用其特有的調(diào)整方法來調(diào)整著特定的調(diào)整對象…比如與生產(chǎn)者、經(jīng)營者相比,由于信息不對等等原因,消費者處于弱者地位,而消費者為進行生活消費而完全和公平地獲得基本的消費品及服務(wù)的權(quán)利,實質(zhì)上是以生存權(quán)為主的基本人權(quán)。所以為了實質(zhì)公平與人權(quán)保護,保護弱者利益的精神貫穿了國際私法的立法過程。
3、法學(xué)評論文章
【檢索路徑】中國知網(wǎng)、北大法寶--國際私法、弱者、法律適用、權(quán)益保護
【檢索結(jié)果】共1263篇,經(jīng)選擇
●袁發(fā)強。 我國國際私法中弱者保護制度的反思與重構(gòu)[J]. 法商研究,2014,(06)。
與大部分觀點相反,作者認為在家庭婚姻關(guān)系中不存在弱者,現(xiàn)代文明國家的法律一般都強調(diào)人人平等原則,法律本身并不承認哪種人群在社會中享有特殊的法律地位和權(quán)利。現(xiàn)代法律并沒有賦予男人相對于女人、成年人相對于兒童和老人在家庭中以特別的權(quán)利和地位。法律關(guān)系中當事人的地位不平等需要通過加強人權(quán)保護的方法來實現(xiàn)。在這種不平等的法律關(guān)系中,無所謂強者與弱者,而是關(guān)乎是否公平、正義的問題。不能把因法律地位不平等而處于弱勢地位的整體性人群視為弱者。在國際私法的語境中,弱者具有不同于社會意義和一般法律意義上弱者的含義,是法律選擇或爭議解決方式及地點選擇方面的弱者,而不是民事實體權(quán)利義務(wù)關(guān)系上的弱者。由此,體現(xiàn)弱者保護的法律選擇方法或規(guī)則直接關(guān)注的并非法律選擇后果的利益最大化,而在于幫助弱者實現(xiàn)法律保護的權(quán)利,在立法或判例中表現(xiàn)為政策定向的法律選擇方法或規(guī)則。國際私法對弱者保護的目的在于避免所選擇的法律會降低對弱者權(quán)利的保護程度,而非追求弱者權(quán)利實現(xiàn)的最大化。
●賀連博。 國際私法中弱者權(quán)利保護方法[J]. 法學(xué)雜志,2008,(05)。
國際私法用自己獨特的方式保護著涉外民商事交往中弱者群體的正當權(quán)益。這里所說的“弱者”主要包括涉外合同領(lǐng)域消費合同中的消費者、雇傭合同中的被雇傭者、技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)讓合同中的技術(shù)受讓方;涉外侵權(quán)中的受害人,尤其是涉外產(chǎn)品責任的受害人,以及涉外婚姻家庭領(lǐng)域中需要確認是否有婚生地位的子女;被監(jiān)護人、被收養(yǎng)人、被扶養(yǎng)人等。
●曲波,喻劍利。 解讀國際私法領(lǐng)域中弱者的含義及法律特征[J]. 長白學(xué)刊,2007,(06)。
●胡秀娟。 論國際私法中弱者權(quán)益之保護對意思自治原則的沖擊[J]. 理論月刊,2006,(11)。
作者在論文中分析了弱者權(quán)益保護原則和意思自治原則的關(guān)系,認為弱者權(quán)益保護原則是對意思自治的一種限制,只有有限度的意思自治才能平衡各種復(fù)雜的社會關(guān)系。
●屈廣清。 論保護弱者的國際私法方法及其立法完善--以沖突規(guī)范的保護方法為中心[J]. 法商研究,2006,(05)。
●徐冬根。 人文關(guān)懷與國際私法中弱者利益保護[J]. 當代法學(xué),2004,(05)。
●許軍珂。 論國際私法對弱者正當權(quán)益的保護[J]. 法學(xué)雜志,2003,(04)。
●賈明順。 國際私法中弱者保護與意思自治問題探究。 北京航空航天大學(xué)學(xué)報,2015,(28)
作者在文章寫道,國際私法上的弱者是指在涉外民商事關(guān)系中處于弱勢地位或者不利地位的當事人,或是在特定社會關(guān)系中處于劣勢的一方。國際私法實踐中的弱者通常包括: 第一,特殊合同中的一方當事人,如消費合同中的消費者、雇傭合同中的雇員; 第二,侵權(quán)法上的受害人; 第三,婚姻家庭中的婦女、未成年人等。
第四部分、國外法律資源
一、Primary Sources
1.Treaties
【檢索路徑】United Nations Treaty Collection-Registration & Publication-UN Treaty Series-Applicable law
【檢索結(jié)果】
●Convention Concerning The Powers Of Authorities and The Law Applicable in The Protection of Children, Article4
Article 4
If the authorities of the State of the infant's nationality consider that the interests of the infant so require, they may, after having informed the authorities of the State of his habitual residence, take measures according to their own law for the protection of his person or property.
That law shall determine the conditions for the initiation, modification and termination of the said measures. It shall also govern their effects both in respect of relations between the infant and the persons or institutions responsible for his care, and in respect of third persons.
The application of the measures taken shall be assured by the authorities of the State of the infant's nationality.
The measures taken by virtue of the preceding paragraphs of the present article shall replace any measures which may have been taken by the authorities of the State where the infant has his habitual residence.
●Convention on the law applicable to maintenance obligations. Concluded at The Hague on 2 October 1973, Article 4-Article 10
Article 4. The internal law of the habitual residence of the maintenance creditor shall govern the maintenance obligations referred to in article 1.
In the case of a change in the habitual residence of the creditor, the internal law of the new habitual residence shall apply as from the moment when the change occurs.
Article 5. If the creditor is unable, by virtue of the law referred to in article 4, to obtain maintenance from the debtor, the law of their common nationality shall apply.
Article 6. If the creditor is unable, by virtue of the laws referred to in articles 4 and 5, to obtain maintenance from the debtor, the internal law of the authority seized shall apply.
Article 7. In the case of a maintenance obligation between persons related col laterally or by affinity, the debtor may contest a request from the creditor on the ground that there is no such obligation under the law of their common nationality or, in the absence of a common nationality, under the internal law of the debtor's habitual residence.
Article 8. Notwithstanding the provisions of articles 4 to 6, the law applied to a divorce shall, in a Contracting State in which the divorce is granted or recognized, govern the maintenance obligations between the divorced spouses and the revision of decisions relating to these obligations.
The preceding paragraph shall apply also in the case of a legal separation and in the case of a marriage which has been declared void or annulled.
Article 9. The right of a public body to obtain reimbursement of benefits provided for the maintenance creditor shall be governed by the law to which the body is subject.
Article 10. The law applicable to a maintenance obligation shall determine inter alia:
(1.1) whether, to what extent and from whom a creditor may claim maintenance;
(2.2) who is entitled to institute maintenance proceedings and the time limits for their institution;
(3.3) the extent of the obligation of a maintenance debtor, where a public body seeks
reimbursement of benefits provided for a creditor.
Article 11. The application of the law designated by this Convention may be refused only if it is manifestly incompatible with public policy (order public)。
However, even if the applicable law provides otherwise, the needs of the creditor and the resources of the debtor shall be taken into account in determining the amount of maintenance.
●Convention on the law applicable to contractual obligations
Article 5
2. Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 3, a choice of law made by the parties shall not have the result of depriving the consumer of the protection afforded to him by mandatory rules of the law of the country in which he has habitual residence:
-if in that country the conclusion of the contract was preceded by a specific invitation addressed to him or by advertising, and he had taken in that country all the steps necessary on his part for the conclusion of the contract, or
-if the other party or his agent received the consumer's order in that country, or
-if the contract is for the sale of goods and the consumer travelled from that country to another country and there gave his order, provided that the consumer's journey was arranged by the seller to inducing the consumer to buy.
2.Cases
【檢索路徑】Westlaw-Primary Sources-Cases-Applicable law and interests of the weak and public policy and substantive justice and conflict law
【檢索結(jié)果】共40篇,經(jīng)選擇
●Estate of Pigorsch ex rel. Martin v. York College, 734 F.Supp.2d 704. Aug 18, 2010, United States District Court, N.D. lowa, Western Division.
Court had use Iowa choice of law rules to determine whether law of Iowa, Nebraska, or Kansas applied; place of injury, as well as place where conduct that caused injury occurred, could be grouped with business interests of magazine distributor in Iowa so that distributor's contact with Iowa was of considerably greater weight than residence of deceased student athlete or Nebraska college's place of business; needs of interstate and international systems supported application of Iowa law; consideration and comparison of policies and relative interests of nominee states weighed in favor of application of Iowa law.
對于弱者利益的保護也時常表現(xiàn)在最密切聯(lián)系原則這一國際私法的普遍原則之中。法院往往通過對連結(jié)點的細化分割以及在選擇連結(jié)點時著重考慮對弱者利益以及利益衡平等方法選擇適用法律
●Johnson v. American Leather Specialties Corp, 578 F.Supp.2d 1154, September.29, 2008.
●DJR Associates, LLC v. Hmmonds, F. Supp.3d, March 13, 2017, United States District Court, N.D. Alabama, Southern Division
Under Alabama law, clause in employment agreement between chemical company and its salesman, which provided that Alabama law would apply “without regard to the conflict of laws provision thereof,” was unenforceable to extent that it was intended to override Alabama conflict-of-laws rules; conflict-of-laws rules addressed the fundamental public policy of the states interested in the dispute, and parties could not override state law on that question, since doing so essentially nullified the state law invoked to decide which state law must apply. Restatement (Second) Conflicts of Law § 187 .
法官認為該案涉及到了Alabama州的公共政策問題,對于本州法律中的強制性問題,必須選擇適用本州的法律。公共秩序原則對于弱者利益--在本案中表現(xiàn)為雇員利益--的保護起到的是安全閥的作用,即不得有低于該法規(guī)定標準的法律適用,保護了相對弱者在法律選擇上的基礎(chǔ)利益。
●Neely v. Club Med Management Services, Inc, 63 F.3d 166, July 26,1995, United States Court of Appeals, Third Circuit
The solution to the lack of guidance lies in approaching the Lauritzen analysis in a way that is faithful to its nature as a specialized form of interest analysis designed to ensure that American maritime law of personal injuries applies only where significant American interests are implicated and only in conformity with international law. Specifically, we interpret the notion of “substantial contacts” to embody these twin concerns in a two-step inquiry derived from international law. We conclude below that, in a Jones Act or general maritime law case, a court deciding whether American contacts are “substantial” (so that American law applies) must at the threshold ask whether one of the following factors is involved in the incident, in which case there is a basis for prescriptive jurisdiction (which, we explain infra subsection 1, means that significant American interests are implicated): injury to an American seaman or a seaman with American dependents, injury in American territory, American defendants, an American flagged ship, or a contractual choice of law clause specifying American law. If so, the second step in the substantial contacts inquiry is for the court to ascertain whether application of American law is reasonable under the circumstances, in which case (as subsection *183 2 describes) international law is satisfied.
3.Statues
【檢索路徑】Statutes & Court Rules- Statutes-Applicable law
【檢索結(jié)果】
V.T.C.A, Labor Code§ 308.009 Rights and Duties of Participating Trainees
(a) Each trainee who participates in the program shall work during the training course not less than the minimum number of hours required under applicable federal law for work participation for recipients of public assistance.
該條款為受雇者的公共教育時間規(guī)定了最低標準,適用其他州法時不得低于該標準。
V.T.C.A., Labor Code§ 408.001. Exclusive Remedy; Exemplary Damages
(a) Recovery of workers' compensation benefits is the exclusive remedy of an employee covered by workers' compensation insurance coverage or a legal beneficiary against the employer or an agent or employee of the employer for the death of or a work-related injury sustained by the employee.
該條款規(guī)定了為工傷規(guī)定了排他性的補償條款,以防止在本州內(nèi)發(fā)生的工傷事故可能適用低于本州標準的其他州法,為雇傭者提供了保護性的防范作用。
二、Secondary Sources
1.Restatement of American Laws
【檢索路徑】Westlaw-Secondary Sources-Restatement of American Law& Principle -Conflict Law
【檢索結(jié)果】
●Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws § 184 (1971)
Recovery for tort or wrongful death will not be permitted in any state if the defendant is declared immune from such liability by the workmen's compensation statute of a state under which the defendant is required to provide insurance against the particular risk and under which
(a) the plaintiff has obtained an award for the injury, or
(b) the plaintiff could obtain an award for the injury, if this is the state (1) where the injury occurred, or (2) where employment is principally located, or (3) where the employer supervised the employee's activities from a place of business in the state, or (4) whose local law governs the contract of employment under the rules of §§ 187- 188 and 196.
●Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws § 192 (1971)
The validity of a life insurance contract issued to the insured upon his application and the rights created thereby are determined, in the absence of an effective choice of law by the insured in his application, by the local law of the state where the insured was domiciled at the time the policy was applied for, unless, with respect to the particular issue, some other state has a more significant relationship under the principles stated in § 6 to the transaction and the parties, in which event the local law of the other state will be applied.
2.Law Review Articles
【檢索路徑】Westlaw-Secondary Sources-Law Review Articles--Applicable law and interests of the weak and public policy and substantive justice and conflict law
Heionline--Law Journal Library--Applicable law and interests of the weak and public policy and substantive justice and conflict law
【檢索結(jié)果】共38164篇,經(jīng)選擇
●Nancy Ehrenreich, Foreword: Conceptualizing Substantive Justice,13 J. Gender Race & Just. Rev.13, 533,574 (2009-2010)。
“Substantive justice” emphasizes the substantive rather than the formal understanding of legal rules and their management of civil relations; it defines the fairness of non-formality in redistribution; and recognizes their own contingency and normality. In short, the concept of substantive justice not only contains the critics of the liberal challenge, but also try to promote the positive changes in legal thinking. Postmodern legal critics (and some of the American legal realists before them) also reveal that legal reasoning is not entirely reasonable, neutral, and objective, but politically judged.
●A.J.E. Jaffey, the Foundation of Rules for the Choice of Law, 2 Oxford J. Legal Stud. Rev. 368,392 (1982)。
●Christa Roodt, The integration of substantive law interests and material justice in South African choice of law, 36 Comp&Int'l L.J.S.Afr. 1,24(2003)
Justice plays an important part in setting boundaries for application of choice of law rules. One of the classic dilemmas of the conflict of laws lies on the terrain of the true implications of the meaning of justice in international cases. 'Conflicts justice' may be distinguished from 'substantive justice' for purposes of analysis, but it is also possible to regard the two concepts in competition with each other.
●Michael Kearney Lawfare, Legitimacy and resistance: The Weak and the law: 16 Pal. Y.B. Int'l L.79(2010)
The Lawfare phenomenon is readily identifiable by reference to the identity of its alleged proponents. These are variously “Islamic orientated human rights organization[s] ,”4 al Qaeda,9 “NGO superpowers,”“ and a ”self-perpetuating inter- national legal establishment.“” A defining feature of Lawfare, and one which accentuates its 'war on terror' pedigree, is the interchangeable use of the terms 'enemy,' 'terrorist,' 'Islamic,' and 'Palestinian,' typically in a tone and substance both subjective and spurious.52 That is not to say that the recurring motifs found in such pieces are not worthy of intellectual attention, but there is an almost total failure to address and engage with the substantive issues of law and fact. These include the fluctuating meaning of sovereignty, what constitutes self-defense, defamation of religion, the use of international law by national courts, the development of customary international law, and indeed the purpose and nature of international law.
第五部分 總結(jié)
在通過國內(nèi)外法律資料比對之后,我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)無論是立法還是司法我國在弱者利益保護方面仍然與國際存在一定的差距。首先,我們應(yīng)當在立法和司法中更加明確究竟何謂弱者。在當前的理論和實踐中大部分國家都將弱者的概念延伸到了侵權(quán)、特殊種類合同和家庭婚姻領(lǐng)域,但鑒于弱者概念的這種相對性,如何更好更公正地確定弱者的概念以真正地在實踐中保護需要保護的一方。第二,我國立法在弱者利益保護方面的發(fā)展趨向,如何在具體制度的設(shè)計甚至弱者利益保護作為一項原則在涉外民事法律關(guān)系法律適用法方面做出規(guī)定。